World War I and Its Aftermath (1914-1920)
Focus
• European rivalries and entangling alliances
• chain of events that led to World War I
• underlying causes of World War I
• key battles of World War I
• role of United States in World War I
• new technology that changed the nature of warfare
• long-term and short-term effects of the Versailles Treaty
Vocabulary
Use the vocabulary words and definitions below as a reference for this unit.
abdicate ........................................... to give up power
alliance ............................................ an agreement between countries, groups, or people to work together in
doing something
ammunition ................................... bullets, shells, grenades, bombs, and other materials that can be fired from
guns or exploded in some way
armistice ......................................... a temporary agreement to stop fighting; a truce before a formal peace treaty
arms race ......................................... a rivalry among nations to gain the greatest military power
artillery ........................................... large, heavy firearms
assassinate ...................................... to murder, usually for political reasons
assault.............................................. a sudden, violent attack
desertion ......................................... the act of leaving a military force
without permission
diplomat ......................................... a person who represents his or her government in relations with other governments
draft ................................................. a government’s selection of men for required military service
exaggerate ....................................... to make something seem larger or greater than it is
flank ................................................ the right or left side of a military force
front ................................................. a place where fighting is going on between two or more countries
heir ................................................... the person who is next in line for the throne of a country
militarism ....................................... the glorification of armed strength
minority .......................................... the smaller part of a group
mobilize .......................................... to organize resources for combat
neutral ............................................. belonging to neither side in a war
offensive ......................................... a course of attack
reparations ..................................... payment for war damages
statesmen ........................................ persons skilled in carrying out public or national affairs
trenches ........................................... long ditches dug in the ground to protect soldiers in battle
ultimatum ....................................... final set of demands
victors .............................................. those who are successful in battle
World War I (1914-1920)
World War I: The War to End All Wars
World War I, once called the war to end all wars, broke out in Europe in
August 1914. By the time it was over in November 1918, 8.5 million
soldiers had been killed. Twenty-one million soldiers had been wounded.
More soldiers died in World War I than had died in all the wars since the
year A.D. 1100. Millions of civilians were left without homes. Cities and the
countryside were destroyed. The war cost over 338 billion dollars. Even
the winners paid a huge price. Those who won the war lost almost as
much as those who had been defeated. By the war’s end, political systems throughout
Europe had been changed. The Austria- Hungary Empire and the Ottoman Empire had
been completely destroyed. Germany was no longer ruled by a kaiser (king), and Russia was
no longer ruled by a czar. In place of those monarchies, Germany developed a democracy,
and Russia became a Communist country. Europe had entered the 20th century as the
economic and military power of the world. Great Britain and Germany had developed as
successful, industrialized nations. Both had powerful navies. France had recovered
remarkably from its economic and military defeats in the 19th century. But as European
nations grew stronger, they developed many disagreements and
conflicts. In the latter half of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century, European leaders
were unable to find a peaceful way of solving their problems.
Eventually, Europe became a hot spot ready to explode. One small battle or war could quickly set off a chain of
events leading to the Great War: World War I. What Europe thought would be a short war (like those of the 19th
century) turned into a bitter, four-year struggle. When it was over, there were victors, but there were no winners.
Germany was no longer ruled
by a kaiser (king), and Russia
was no longer ruled by a czar
following World War I.
Origins of World War I
The Industrial Revolution encouraged policies of imperialism in industrialized
nations. As these nations sought to gain colonies and overseas markets, they often developed
conflicts with one another. Nationalism fueled their desire to show their power and strength by
expanding their control of territories and countries. Nationalism often caused nations to
compete for valuable land and countries. Nationalism also increased militarism, or the
industrial nations’ glorification of military strength. This then led to different alliances, or agreements, between countries. As you can see, each cause led to many effects. The Industrial Revolution led to imperialism,
which led to nationalism, which led to militarism, which led to alliances. And all of these effects eventually led to World War I. One way to remember this is to use the mnemonic MAIN, which stands for the following.
Militarism
Alliances
Imperialism
Nationalism
Conflicts Leading to World War I
Changes in the Balance of Power
During the 19th century, the shape of Germany and Italy had changed. Germany had been composed of a group of states, each state often having different interests. Under Bismarck, Germany unified into a powerful
country. Although far less powerful, Italy had also gone from being a collection of small, weak states to a unified nation. These changes created a change in Europe’s balance of power. France and Great Britain grew
concerned about the strength of Germany. However, having just been defeated by Germany, France was in no condition to stop German industrial and military growth. And France and Austria-Hungary had lost
control over Italy after its unification. In the period before World War I, Great Britain and Germany were the
strongest countries. France was next; Russia and Austria-Hungary were third. Each of these countries had certain goals. Often, the goals of one country were in conflict with the goals of another country. The conflicts
discussed below were some of the major causes of World War I. Austria-Hungary wanted to stop nationalist movements within their multi-national empire, especially in the Balkans (Southeast Europe). The Austria-Hungary
Empire included millions of Croats, Bohemians, and other Slavic peoples, many of whom wanted political
freedom and self-rule. Austria-Hungary, however, wanted to maintain rule over its minority populations in
Eastern Europe.
• Working against the political interests of Austria-
Hungary was Russia. Russia wanted to gain influence in
the Balkans to secure a warm-water port that would be
open all year. Russian ships could not operate during the
winter because Russian ports in the north were frozen
for several months. Russia hoped to gain access to the
seaports of the Mediterranean Sea. Russia believed that
their aims could only be achieved through war with
Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empires.
• Germany in the early 20th century began a policy of
militarism. Germany wanted to be the dominant military
power in Europe. Between 1890 and 1914, the German
army and navy had expanded. Germany’s chief rivals,
France and Russia, had developed a military alliance.
Germany also wanted to expand its influence in Africa
and Asia.
• France wanted a chance to get back the territories of
Alsace and Lorraine—lands lost to Germany in the
Franco-Prussian War. To this end, France had
strengthened its military ties to Russia and built a larger
army to keep up with Germany’s growing strength.
• Great Britain did not want Germany to become a threat
to its overseas empires in Africa and Asia. Britain wanted
to remain the strongest colonial empire in the world. The
British were concerned about Germany’s growing
interest in building a railroad through the Balkans,
which might endanger Britain’s access to India. Great
Britain continued to devote more and more of its
resources to expanding their already powerful navy. This
caused strained relations between Germany and Great
Britain.
• In the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), Russia went to
war with Turkey on behalf of the Slavic people in the
Balkans. Russia’s imperialist ambitions were to use the
conflict between the Slavic people and the Turks as an
excuse to expand into Balkan territory. Russia forced
upon Turkey a peace treaty that gave Russia the most
influence in the Balkans. The Treaty of San Stefano (1878)
created a large Russian-controlled Bulgarian state. Great
Britain, Germany, and Austria-Hungary were afraid of
Russian influence in the Balkan area. In 1878 Great
Britain and Germany forced Russia to give up most of
the territory it won in the Russo-Turkish War the year
before. At the Congress of Berlin in 1878, the European
powers divided Bulgaria into three parts. One part
remained under Turkish rule. Serbia, Montenegro, and
Romania won independence. Britain gained control of
Cyprus, and Austria-Hungary won the provinces of
Bosnia and Herzegovina. Russia lost its war gains. The
Ottoman empire lost European territory.
Entangling Alliances
The shift in the balance of power caused all of the European countries to
make alliances with each other. Once two countries joined in an alliance,
they became a threat to other countries. So other countries joined an
alliance to protect themselves. Quite quickly, Europe split into two sides.
Germany and Austria-Hungary joined in the first important military and
political alliance. This alliance, or agreement, stated that Germany and
Austria-Hungary would come to each other’s aid if Russia attacked one of
them. Germany then formed a similar alliance with Italy to oppose France
in case of attack. Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungary were now part of
the Triple Alliance.
Similar agreements were made between France, Russia, and Great Britain.
They agreed to protect each other in case Germany, Italy, or Austria-
Hungary attacked them. The agreement or treaty between France, Russia,
and Great Britain was called the Triple Entente, or friendly understanding.
The period from 1870 to 1914 was a time when European countries formed
entangling alliances. These entangling alliances were made so that if one
country attacked another, all countries would be forced to declare war on
each other. Obviously, this system of alliances caused great tension
throughout Europe. A dispute between any two powers could draw the
entire continent into war. This period from 1870 to 1914 was a time of too
many diplomats representing their governments and not enough
statesmen skilled in carrying out public and national affairs. In other
words, too many deals were made, and there were not enough strong and
skillful leaders.
Arms Race
General feelings of unrest throughout Europe encouraged the desire for
artillery, or large, heavy firearms. The Industrial Revolution provided
European countries with the technology to build more powerful weapons
at a fast pace. Industries developed to produce guns, cannons, and other
modern weapons. Each country tried to produce more weapons than
another. Along with this arms race, nations increased the size of their
reserve armies. More men were drafted for longer periods of time. In case
of an assault, or attack, these reserves would be mobilized, or called to
active duty, to serve in the army. These events did not give Europeans a
sense of security; instead it appeared that European countries were
headed for war.
Imperialism and Economics
During the period before World War I, imperialism
played an important role in causing competition and
conflicts among nations. Nations competed with each
other as never before. Competition grew as European
nations sought new colonies and spheres of influence
for trade. France and Great Britain were very worried
about the rapid growth of Germany. They did not
want Germany to claim too many colonies overseas.
Newspapers Spread Fear and Encourage Nationalism
Newspapers exaggerated the problems between
nations. For example, British newspapers printed
stories saying that the Germans were out to destroy
the British Empire. German newspapers printed
stories which accused France and Great Britain of
being hungry for more land. Newspapers helped fuel nationalism and fear
among their readers.
The Balkan Crisis of 1912–1913
The second major crisis took place in the Balkans. Russia wanted to
control a waterway to the Mediterranean. With Russian approval, four
Balkan nations, known as the Balkan League—Serbia, Montenegro,
Bulgaria, and Greece—warred against, defeated, and seized territory from
the Ottoman Empire. As a result of the war, the Ottomans lost all of their
European territory with the exception of Istanbul. Soon after the war, the
Balkan states began to fight among themselves over lands they had
gained in the war with the Ottomans. The fighting finally ended in 1913
with the Treaty of Bucharest. The disputed land was redistributed. The
European powers tried to preserve the existing balance of power to
prevent Russia and Austria-Hungary from gaining more influence in the
Balkans.
Austria was opposed to Russian influence in the Balkans. Austria feared
that a powerful Serbia would cause unrest among Serbians and other
Slavic peoples in the Austria-Hungary Empire. Germany supported
Austrian ambitions to control the Balkans. The Balkan crisis of 1912–1913
brought Russia and Serbia closer together and intensified Russian and
Serbian hatred for Austria-Hungary.
At the beginning of 1914, Europe was on the brink of war. Allies grew
closer than ever as tension throughout Europe mounted.
The Final Straw: War Begins
Taken all together, the situation in Europe from 1870 to 1914 was very
unstable. Europe was ready to explode. All it needed was a spark to set it
off.
The rival alliances—the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente—had faced
each other in a series of diplomatic clashes between 1905 and 1914. One
Serbian nationalist finally committed the act that set off the Great War.
The government of Austria-Hungary knew that Serbian nationalists in
Serbia and in Austria were plotting the breakup of the Austria–Hungary
Empire. Austria-Hungary suggested a new plan of government to satisfy
the Serbs. The Dual Monarchy would become the Triple Monarchy.
Austria-Hungary hoped that giving more self-determination to the
national minorities within the empire would keep the minorities from
rebelling. This plan, however, was never put into action.
On June 28, 1914, the heir to the Austrian throne, Archduke Francis
Ferdinand, and his wife Sophie were visiting Sarajevo, the capital of
Bosnia, in the Balkans. Sarajevo was a Serbian-populated region in the
Austrian Empire. Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist who wanted all
Serbians to unite in one nation, assassinated both Archduke Francis
Ferdinand and his wife Sophie as they drove through the streets of
Sarajevo.
At first, European diplomats thought they could solve this crisis through
diplomacy. After all, the other crises had been solved through diplomacy.
What the diplomats did not realize was that this crisis was much more
serious than the others.
Chain of Events
June 28, 1914 A Serbian nationalist assassinates
Austria’s Archduke Francis Ferdinand
and his wife.
July 23, 1914 Austria-Hungary gives Serbia an
ultimatum, a set of final demands that
must be accepted to avoid severe
consequences.
July 28, 1914 Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia
and attacks.
Unit 4: World War I and Its Aftermath (1914-1920) 121
July 30, 1914 Russia begins to mobilize its army for
war against Austria.
July 31, 1914 Germany issues Russia an ultimatum to
cancel its mobilization order or face war.
Germany also issues an ultimatum to
France.
Germany demands that Russia stop its
war preparation.
Germany asks France what it will do if
Germany goes to war with Russia. France
says that it will act according to its own
interests.
August 1, 1914 France prepares for war.
Germany declares war on Russia.
August 2, 1914 Germany demands the right to march
through neutral Belgium. France says
“no.”
August 3, 1914 Germany declares war on France.
Great Britain promises to help France.
August 4, 1914 Germany invades Belgium, a neutral
country.
Great Britain declares war on Germany.
August 6, 1914 Austria declares war on Russia.
Diplomacy fails; all of Europe is drawn into war.
Responsibility for the War
Much has been written about which country was responsible for causing
World War I. The paragraphs which follow will provide you with some
clues. You decide.
Serbia
Serbia wanted to create a large Slavic state that would include land
controlled by the Ottoman and Austria-Hungary empires. The Serbian
122 Unit 4: World War I and Its Aftermath (1914-1920)
government encouraged the nationalistic movements within the
Austria-Hungary Empire and was aware that Archduke Francis
Ferdinand’s life was in danger. However, the Serbian government could
not have acted so openly and boldly without the knowledge that Russia
and France would defend Serbia in case of war.
Austria-Hungary
The Austria-Hungary Empire was falling apart. The government was
unable to stop the many nationalistic movements within its empire. When
the heir to the Austrian throne was killed, Austria-Hungary wanted to
punish Serbia. Austria-Hungary, however, could not have acted so boldly
without knowledge that Germany would back its demands. The Austrian
government believed that this crisis would stay in the Balkans and that the
Balkan war would not spread.
Germany
The German government wanted more territory in Europe and a larger
empire around the world. Germany encouraged the Austria-Hungary
government to put down nationalistic movements. Germany would have
more influence in the Balkans if Austria-Hungary maintained its empire.
The German Kaiser William (German: Wilhelm) II, was a cousin of both
the Russian Czar Nicholas II and the British King George V. Therefore,
William II did not fear Great Britain or Russia. He never expected that his
cousin, George V, would go to war against
Germany. He also thought that Russia and
France would be too weak to fight.
Russia
The Russian government encouraged Serbia to
refuse many of the demands made by the
Austrian government. When Russia mobilized
its army for war, it forced Germany and Austria
to do the same. Russia still wanted a water
route to the Mediterranean. The Russian
government felt that if the Austria-Hungary
Empire was divided, Russia would get its
water route and gain control over the Balkan
countries.
When Russia mobilized its
army for war, it forced
Germany and Austria to do
the same.
France
The French government, angry at the Germans and Austrians, did nothing
to stop the Russians. France wanted Alsace-Lorraine back, a territory it
had lost from Germany in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). France
also wanted to prevent Germany from gaining more territory overseas.
Great Britain
Great Britain feared German control of Belgium—with its location across
the channel from the British Isles—as a threat to its security. Britain made
it clear that it would fight to protect Belgium. Great Britain was also
worried about Germany’s growing economic and military strength.
The Responsible Party?
Which of the countries’ actions described above caused World War I?
Some of the countries and empires were more aggressive than others. But
it is hard to point to any single country or empire as responsible for World
War I.
Europe Plunges into War
European diplomats made many mistakes in judgment during World
War I. They believed that, as with past wars, this war would last only a
few months. Each side expected to win a quick victory. They were wrong.
The fighting dragged on for four years. This was a war unlike any other in
history. Neither side gained a major advantage and both sides suffered
terrible losses. During this unprecedented war, the Triple Entente became
known as the Allies and Germany and Austria as the Central Powers.
Stalemate on the Western Front
The Germans were faced with fighting on two fronts. On the Western
Front, they would be fighting the British and the French. On the Eastern
Front, they would be fighting the Russians. Yet, the Germans had a plan:
the Schlieffen Plan. The Schlieffen Plan called for a swift attack on France,
while Russia slowly mobilized. Almost the entire German army would
race west to knock France out of action before the Russian army was ready
to fight in the east. The idea was that France would surrender early in the
war. Then Germany would turn on Russia in the east.
The Germans followed their plan. At first, it worked. Germany quickly
moved through Belgium on the way to France. The Germans attacked the
French at the first battle of Marne River. The French successfully counterattacked
the right flank of the German army, and drove back the German
army. Paris was saved. Then the German generals made a mistake. They
changed policy. Instead of making quick moves, they stopped and dug in.
They dug trenches in the ground to protect themselves. Trench warfare had
begun. This strategy wore the Germans down. At Verdun, France, for
example, the Germans fought a long and costly battle with the French.
Both sides lost over 300,000 soldiers in this dug-in warfare.
By Christmas 1914, the two sides formed a battle line that became known
as the Western Front. The opposing armies used trench warfare trench warfare. Now the
war became economic. That is, the side with the ability to supply their
soldiers with food, clothing, weapons, and ammunition over the longest
period of time would win.
The Eastern Front
On the Eastern Front, the Russian army suffered heavy losses at the hands
of the German army. Austria suffered heavy losses, as well. Neither Russia
nor Austria were as industrialized as France, Great Britain, and Germany.
Their weapons were second-rate. Their ability to supply their soldiers with
proper clothing, food, and weapons was poor. By the end of 1914, the
Eastern Front looked similar to the Western Front. That is, all sides were
dug in. Germany entered the war with the strongest and best-supplied
army. However, it faced one problem which it was unable to overcome: its
geography. Germany’s only way of getting supplies by sea was through
the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. But Great Britain’s navy was stronger
than the German navy. Britain controlled the seas. Therefore, Germany
and Austria-Hungary had to rely mostly on their own supplies.
Germany was helped somewhat when the Ottoman Empire entered the
war as an ally. This meant that Russia would lose the use of warm-water
ports into the Mediterranean Sea. This hurt Russia, since it needed these
ports to get supplies. The British government decided to attack the Turks
in an attempt to open the ports. In 1915 the British army and navy
attacked at Gallipoli. The battle lasted 18 months. Great Britain was
soundly defeated.
In the meantime, Bulgaria joined Germany. Italy, Germany’s unreliable
partner, switched sides and joined the Allies. Italy did this because it was
promised territory if Germany and Austria were defeated. Although the
Italian army was poorly equipped for war, Italy attacked Austria-
Hungary. Only with help from Great Britain and France was Italy able to
hold its own.
Throughout 1915 and 1916, the Russian army
suffered heavy losses. The Russian government was
losing the support of its people, and they asked for
an end to the war. In 1917, the Russian government
was overthrown by a revolutionary group known as
the Bolsheviks. The new Russian government signed
a separate peace treaty with Germany in March
1918. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk gave Germany
much Russian territory. The Russians gave up the
Baltic provinces, the Ukraine, and Poland. The war
on the Eastern Front was over. Now, Germany could
bring all of its resources to the Western Front.
European Governments Wage Total War
All European citizens were totally involved in the war effort. The
governments of Britain, Germany, Austria, Poland, and France took
control of the economy. Factories were told what and how much to
produce. All able-bodied civilians were put to work. Thousands of women
replaced men in factories and other jobs. Their efforts kept the troops
supplied with food, clothing, and war supplies. Because of the war, many
goods were in short supply. Europeans governments had to turn to
rationing. Citizens could only buy small quantities of those goods that
were also needed for the war effort.
The Russian army
suffered heavy losses at
the hands of the
German army on the
Eastern Front.
The United States Enters the War
As the war dragged on, bitterness among nations increased. Offers of a
peace treaty from Germany were rejected by Great Britain and France. In
1917, however, the tide of the war changed. The United States entered the
war on the side of Great Britain and France, or the Allies. Until American
troops (called Doughboys) arrived, Germany was winning the war. The
United States entered the war for many reasons. The main reason was that
Germany refused to stop submarine attacks against American ships
bringing supplies to Great Britain. As a neutral country, the United States
claimed the right to sell supplies to any country it chose. Germany replied
that, as a country at war with Great Britain, it had a right to stop any
country from supplying Britain.
Doughboys
The expression Òdoughboys,Ó which was in wide circulation a century before the
first World War in both Britain and America, came from fried flour dumplings
called doughboys, the predecessor of the modern doughnut. History is not
completely clear on why our American soldiers were called doughboys, but
there are several theories.
¥ American soldiers came to love eating the doughboys or doughnuts.
¥ United States infantrymen wore coats with unique brass buttons that
resembled the doughboy dumplings.
¥ The method of cooking rations was shaping a flour and rice concoction
in the shape of a doughnut around a bayonet and cooking over the flames.
In 1915 the Germans sank the Lusitania, a British liner carrying munitions
and passengers. Twelve hundred people, mostly civilians, were drowned,
including 128 Americans. This attack on civilians made many Americans
sympathetic towards the Allies.
Another reason for the entry of the United States into the war was the
Zimmermann note. The British had intercepted a telegram message from the
German foreign secretary Arthur Zimmermann to his ambassador in
Mexico. It offered the Mexican government money, a secret alliance, and
former Mexican territory in the United States in return for declaring war
on the United States. When this note became public, Americans demanded
action against Germany. On April 6, 1917, the United States declared war
on the Central Powers.
The War Ends
During the early part of 1918, Germany began an offensive on the Western
Front. The offensive was successful for a while. The German army was
closing in on Paris once again. In July of 1918, the second battle of the
Marne took place. There, the German army was soundly defeated. In
August, the British army defeated the Germans at Amiens, France. With
sinking morale and many desertions, the German army and its plans for victory
looked dismal. In October 1918, the governments of Germany and Austria-
Hungary asked President Woodrow Wilson of the United States to arrange an armistice.
Germany signed the armistice which ended the hostilities on November 11, 1918.
Germany at the end of the war was torn by revolution. On November 9,
Kaiser William II abdicated and fled from Germany to the Netherlands.
Germany then declared itself a republic. The Austria-Hungary Empire had
completely collapsed and the Ottoman Empire was on the verge of
collapse. Economically, politically, and socially, Europe was destroyed.
Europe, once a tower of strength in world affairs, was now a shattered
ruin. Against this troubling series of events, allied leaders prepared to
debate the terms of peace. Neither Russia nor any of the defeated nations
of the Central Powers were to have a voice in the discussions. Instead, the
task fell to the Big Four—Great Britain, France, Italy, and the United States.
Technology and World War I
During World War I, many nations used new military weapons that caused
a tremendous destruction of lives and property. The Industrial Revolution
had enabled these countries to produce these new weapons and materials.
You have already read about trench warfare. Trench warfare meant that the
opposing armies dug trenches in the ground to protect themselves. (See
picture on page 126.) Every so often, a group of soldiers would charge from
their trenches to attack the opposing soldiers. Casualties were high when
this tactic was used and ground gained was measured in yards. Trenches
were protected with barbed wire. Often, soldiers would use poison gases
and smoke bombs to force opposing soldiers out of their trenches.
¥ smokeless gunpowder
¥ machine guns
¥ barbed wire
¥ improved artillery fire
¥ land and sea mines
¥ armored tanks
(beginning in 1917)
¥ trucks for convoys
(toward the end of the war)
¥ amphibious assault vehicles
¥ submarine warfare
¥ airplanes
(for observational purposes; later for small-scale
bombing and attacks on ground forces)
¥ dirigibles
(steerable self-propelled airships; called blimps)
¥ poison gas
The Treaty of Versailles: A Difficult Peace
On November 11, 1918, Germany signed the armistice which ended the
fighting in World War I. Now the victorious countries met to work out a
treaty, or the peace terms, that all the warring countries would obey. This
treaty would explain, for instance, all the penalties that the losing
countries would have to pay to those they fought. The treaty would also
outline any new geographical borders to be drawn. In charge of writing
the treaty were the Big Four—the most powerful allies—Great Britain, the
United States, France, and Italy.
Representatives of the new German government were forced to sign this
peace treaty. They did so on June 28, 1919, in Versailles, a city near Paris,
France, five years to the day after Francis Ferdinand’s assassination in
Sarajevo. Thus the treaty was called the Treaty of Versailles.
Below is an outline of the Versailles treaty. It notes the most important
statesmen involved in the treaty, what problems the treaty needed to
resolve, and what the results of the treaty were. This outline also describes
how the United States responded to the treaty, as well as the problems the
treaty created in the following years.
The Treaty of Versailles
I. People: The Big Four
A. Woodrow Wilson
1. President of the United States
2. Wanted to create a better world through the formation of the
League of Nations
3. Wanted a proposal known as the Fourteen Points, which
would ensure a just and lasting peace
4. Supported self-determination—allowing people to decide for
themselves under what government they wished to live
B. Georges Clemenceau (Klemon-so)
1. Premier of France
2. Sought to ensure France’s security against future German
invasions and wanted a treaty that would make Germany
suffer, to make sure it would never wage war again
3. Wanted to impose military limitations, reparation payments, and territorial losses on Germany
C. David Lloyd George
1. Prime Minister of Great Britain
2. Won reelection in 1916 with the slogan “Hang the Kaiser”
3. Sought to expand Britain’s colonial empire, preserve its
naval and industrial supremacy, and make Germany
pay for the war
D. Vittorio Orlando
1. Prime Minister of Italy
2. Wanted to make sure that pre-war agreements which
promised more land for Italy were honored
3. Wanted to expand Italy’s empire overseas
II. Major issues to resolve
A. Protection for the national and international security of European
nations
B. Polish territories
C. Italy’s claim for more territory
D. German territory
1. What the boundaries of Germany should be
2. What to do with German colonies overseas
E. Satisfaction of France
1. How to make France’s borders more safe and secure
2. Whether to give France back land taken by Germany
during Franco-Prussian War of 1871—Alsace-Lorraine
F. Amount of reparations should Germany pay
G. Care for the millions of desperate people in Europe
Unit 4: World War I and Its Aftermath (1914-1920) 139
III. Results of treaty
A. Italy
1. Received some Austrian territory in the north
2. Received little economic aid
3. Did very poorly at the peace conference
4. Orlando left early, angry
B. France
1. To receive money (reparations) from Germany
2. To get back provinces lost during Franco-Prussian War—
Alsace-Lorraine
C. Japan
1. Became a major power in world affairs
2. Received all German colonies north of the equator in the
Far East
D. Russia
1. Absence from peace conference
2. Involved in civil war
3. Distrusted by the other European nations due to rise of
communism
4. Loss of much territory
a. Finland
b. Baltic states: Latvia, Estonia, and Lithuania
E. Great Britain
1. To receive reparations from Germany
2. To receive most of Germany’s colonies in Africa
F. Germany
1. Lost most of its colonies
2. Gave up about 13 percent of its territory in Europe to France,
Belgium, Denmark, and Poland
3. Reduced to a weakened state
a. Small army
b. Small navy
140 Unit 4: World War I and Its Aftermath (1914-1920)
4. Kaiser and military advisors accused of war crimes
5. Forced to pay huge reparations of about 32 billion dollars
6. Had to accept Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles
a. Germany blamed for starting the war
b. Germany forced to sign treaty under the threat of
invasion
7. New German democratic government formed
G. Austria-Hungary
1. Empire split apart into new countries of Yugoslavia,
Czechoslovakia, and Hungary
2. Could never unite with Germany again
H. United States
1. President Wilson seen as a peacemaker
2. President Wilson presented a plan for a League of Nations
a. European countries joined
b. United States refused to join
3. People in United States wanted to become isolationists again
4. Congress did not approve the Treaty of Versailles
IV. Problems created by the Treaty of Versailles
A. Too many Germans left outside of German borders
B. Many minorities left in different countries
1. Germans left in France
2. Germans left in Poland
3. Austrians left in Italy
C. Continued hatred between French and German people
D. Lack of cooperation among Great Britain, France, and the
United States after the war allowed Germany to rise again
Unit 4: World War I and Its Aftermath (1914-1920) 141
E. German reparations (payments)
1. Unreasonable
2. Germany lost its ability to pay
a. Lost rich coal-producing areas
b. Lost rich iron-producing areas
c. Lost overseas markets
d. Economic collapse after war
V. The 1920 World Organization—League of Nations:
Woodrow Wilson’s idea and dream
A. Purpose
1. To promote international cooperation
2. To help keep the peace
B. Problems
1. Member nations unwilling to give up any power
2. United States refused to join
3. Lacked power to enforce its decisions
VI. Evaluation of the Treaty
A. Weakness of Treaty
1. Countries sought own self-interest
2. Victors did not cooperate
3. Did not prevent Germany from becoming a major power
again
B. Effect on United States
1. President Wilson encouraged the United States to play its role
as a world power
2. Congress refused to accept its responsibility as a world
power
3. United States became isolationist
142 Unit 4: World War I and Its Aftermath (1914-1920)
C. Effect on Germany
1. German people angry with the harsh treatment they
received
2. Germans insulted and angry that they were blamed in
total for causing the war
3. Hitler’s rise to power was a direct result of the anger of
Germans towards the other nations of Europe
VII. Outcome of Treaty
A. Led to worldwide economic depression
B. Failure of European leaders to understand that 19th century
solutions would not work in 20th century
C. Decline of Imperialism
1. President Wilson spoke out in favor of self-determination
2. Nationalism spread throughout the world as natives in
colonies sought independence
The Legacy of the War
Results of the War
Both sides in World War I paid a heavy price measured in the loss of
human life. About 8.5 million soldiers died during the war, and over 21
million were wounded. Millions of civilians died as a result of disease,
starvation, and slaughter.
The war’s cost had an economic impact that lasted
many years after the war. Its total cost was estimated
to be $338 billion. Farmland, homes, villages, and
towns were destroyed by the war. Paying for the war
burdened Europeans with high taxes and a lower
standard of living. Economic problems caused by the
war helped bring on the 1929 depression. Although
the United States became a leading world power, it
was unwilling to take an active part in international
affairs.
Three major European dynasties, or ruling families,
collapsed: the Hohenzollerns of Germany, the Hapsburgs
of Austria-Hungary, and the Romanovs of Russia. The
new nation-states that arose in central Europe struggled to survive
in post-war Europe. Russia, Italy, and Germany, overwhelmed
by economic and political problems, turned to dictatorships.
The League of Nations, established to solve international
problems and advance world peace, was unable to
achieve success without the support of the United
States. Many came to believe that the peace
settlement at Versailles was a peace built on
quicksand. It would eventually give way
two decades later, and the world would
again experience the ravages of war.
About 8.5 million
soldiers died during
the war and over 21
million were
wounded.
Review
The origins of World War I, or the Great War, began long before any
European actually declared war. Imperialism in the late 19th century led to
hostile competition among European nation to colonize and control
overseas territories. Nationalism, or extreme pride in one’s country, fueled
this race for territory. Nationalism also increased militarism, or the build-up
of large militaries.
Added to these factors was a shift in the balance of power in Europe. A unified
Germany grew in economic and military strength. France and Great Britain feared
Germany’s strength and saw it as a threat to their own international success and survival.
In addition, a unified Italy had broken free of France and the Austria-Hungary Empire.
The political face of Europe had been redrawn. Many European countries had different interests that created conflict. Austria- Hungary attempted to keep the many nationalist movements in its empire from rebelling. Russia, on the other hand, supported these groups against Austria-Hungary. Russia wanted a warm-water port in the Balkans and saw a war with Austria-Hungary as a way to gain this. France wanted to regain territories it had lost to Germany in the
Franco-Prussian War. And Great Britain believed that Germany’s rise to power would threaten its holdings in Africa and Asia. All across Europe, regions of tension had developed. In order to protect themselves, countries began to
develop alliances. Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy formed the Triple Alliance. France, Russia, and
Great Britain responded by forming the Triple Entente. Between 1870 and 1914, Europe divided
into two sides, with a few nations remaining neutral. The Triple Entente eventually became known as the
Allies, and Germany and Italy as the Central Powers. The United States turned the German
success into defeat.
World War I began when a Serbian nationalist assassinated Austria’s
Archduke Ferdinand and his wife. Within months, Germany and Austria
were at war with Russia, France, and Great Britain. Russia eventually
withdrew from the war after its government was overthrown. Austria
suffered heavy losses, and Germany was left to fight on its Western Front
against France, Great Britain, and Italy. After early success, Germany
found itself facing the United States. The United States turned the German
success into defeat. In 1918 Germany signed an armistice that ended the
fighting.
In the Treaty of Versailles, the Big Four—France, Great Britain, the United
States, and Italy—forced Germany to pay heavily, both in money and in
land. The treaty turned out to have mixed results. In the end, the United
States did not support the treaty. Nor did the United States support
President Woodrow Wilson’s plan for an international peace organization
called the League of Nations.
The legacy of World War I was one of death and destruction. Both the
Allies and the Central Powers had a staggering number of deaths resulting
from the war. The human and material costs were overwhelming. About
8.5 million soldiers died, and 21 million more were wounded. The nations
of Europe also suffered political and economic hardships. In less than 20
years, conditions created by World War I and the Versailles Peace Treaty
would lead to renewed fighting and another world war.
152 Unit 4: World War I and Its Aftermath (1914-1920)
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